INTRODUCTION
Last year we are celebrating 100
years of electricity in India. We should use this event for doing a comprehensive
introspection of our achievements and failures to redefine goals and strategies.
If one looks through the history of last 100 years of electricity, the
feelings would be mixed. On the one hand, the growth in electrical sector
was phenomenal, with installed capacities growing upto the present level
of about 90000 MWe, adoption of latest electricity generation technologies,
achievement of self- reliance in setting our Nuclear Power Station and
development of sound infrastructure for power industry. On the other hand,
our per capita electricity consumption has been abysmally low in spite
of the fact that India is amongst the first five countries in the would
with regard toe the quantum of total installed capacity. There is acute
shortage of power. One may attribute it to the phenomenal rise in population,
rather than the inefficiency in the power sector. Still the planners in
the field of energy and electric power will continue to grow for sustenance
of per capita energy consumption even at present level due to further of
expected rise in population and need for replacing the non commercial energy(bio-fuel)by
commercial energy resources. Studies by various agencies have forecast
the electric power demand growth at a rate of about 8000-10000 MWe per
year for the coming decade. In the present scenario of acute power shortage,
multi- pronged strategies are required to be adopted foe using the existing
capacities and future addition most efficiently. All the energy resources
have a role to play for meeting the country's electricity demand. However,
due to our limited fossil fuel and environmental compulsions and the need
for achieving energy security and independence, nuclear power would be
called upon to play a progressively increasing role in the coming millennium
to meet our energy needs. It is thus essential to prepare a comprehensive
integrated long term plan for at least 25 years for the growth of energy
and electric power sector based on available resources, technologies and
sustainability. Energy resources, sustainable development, self reliance
and optimum utilisation are the key factors in drawing up such a long term
plan.
KEY ISSUES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
OF ELECTRIC POWER SECTOR
Status of the 8th Five
Year Plan
The installed generation capacity
at the end of the 8th Five Year Plan was 85795 MWe. The share of various
resources was Hydro 25.3%,Thermal 71.1%,Nuclear 2.6% & Wind 1%. The
power supply position at the end of the 8th Plan indicated a energy deficit
of 11.5% and peak power deficit of 18%. Average national Plant Loan Factor
(PLF) of thermal power plants has been around 63%.
Approaches for Meeting Shortage
in Supply to meet Demand
In order to meet the challenges
created by globalisation, energy efficient systems are most important to
compete globally. The first and foremost task for the professionals in
the power sector is to effectively and efficiently manage the demand and
supply side for a sustainable development. For addressing the environmental
problems, one must adopt economically optimal technologies available.
Supply Side Management
Inspite the progressive increase
in PLFs, there is much room for increasing the efficiency of the present
systems. In a country like ours, one would expect that all available plants
and equipment would utilise all their maximum capacity and this would be
kept in good condition through well laid out operational procedures and
preventive maintenance. It is essential to further improve PLF of the existing
plants in all sectors. This can be done by introducing structured programmes
of using modern management techniques, adopting root-cause analysis, improving
the skill of operating and maintenance personnel by extensive training
and introducing updated systems and procedures. It is also essential that
various utility companies share their experience with each other for which
institutional arrangements are essential.
Co-ordinated efforts by utility
companies, power industries and Research & Development organisations,
are required to improve the Plant Load Factor of our plants by increasing
the reliability of equipment and improving the maintenance and outage management.
Service organisations with partnership of industries are required to be
set up for meeting this objective.
Liberalisation can be judiciously
used in attracting international expertise and funds to import improved
and proven technologies for equipment, spare parts, maintenance techniques
and maintenance management for careful consolidation of already built strength.
Renovation and modernisation of ageing plants have to be taken up on a
planned basis.
Demand Side Management
The transmission and distribution
losses in the country are probably one of the highest (which is around
22%) in the world. Bulk of this is due to over loading of transformers
and transmission and distribution lines, long lengths of low medium voltage
power lines, low system power factor, besides non-billing of consumers,
defective metering and theft of power. The variation in the daily loan
cycle is also very high and results in fluctuation of grid frequency. The
frequency excursions have led to premature failure of equipment. The problems
are well known, solutions are also known, we don't need any advise or consultancy
to cure the ill, it is only the right priority, focused attention and the
will that are required to solve this problem.
It is ironical that on the one had,
we are suffering from massive power shortage on the other hand, we are
using power in the most inefficient ways. We are using technologies at
the end use of electricity, in the domestic agricultural and industrial
sectors which are far from being energy efficient. To make things worse,
we have been supplying highly subsidised electricity or free electricity
to some sectors of the population. We may achieve substantial reduction
in electricity consumption if we adopt energy efficient technologies in
industrial sectors for production of steel, cement, iron, aluminium, etc.,
in domestic sector for lighting system, cooling and heating systems, etc.,
and in agricultural sector for pumping sets, etc. Compulsory use of capacitors
for power factor correction for fluorescent lamps, motors, etc., must also
be introduced. The variation in the daily load cycle should also be tackled
by attracting consumers during off-peak hours.
It is well known that the expenditure
involved in addressing above issues through significant is must less than
the amount required for new capacity additions. Above tasks can be accomplished
in a shorter time frame and with much less expenditure than what is required
for new capacity addition.
Attracting international expertise
and funds for improving the transmission systems and replacements of energy
inefficient appliances, such as, pumps in agriculture sector, lighting
system are some measures. The technology presently in use in cement, steel
and aluminium plants consume much higher energy. It is necessary to gradually
replace them by energy efficient technology. There is need to have an integrated
plan for addressing above issues.
Adding New Capacities
With regard to future capacity addition,
there is a need to evolve an integrated plan addressing the various issues
relating to energy sector, such as, the energy mix, environmental consideration,
economics, level of foreign participation, vis-a-vis the country's capacity
to service foreign funding. The plan should be for a period of 20-25 years
with firm commitments for funding as it takes considerable time for prospecting,
opening additional mines, adding manufacturing capacities for training
of manpower.
Priority has also be given to attract
international expertise, technology and funds for introducing co-generation
and other similar technology for reducing the specific fuel consumption
and impact on environment. Attracting international expertise and technologies
for project management for faster completion of the plants is also a priority
as cost and time over runs need to be contained.
With regard to financing, our experience
of last 5-6 years of liberalisation in power sector has amply demonstrated
that IPPs can meet only part of the country's energy needs and a sizeable
portion will be required to be developed by indigenous resources. Long
term energy policy with commitment for funds is essential to avoid crisis
situation ending up with "fire fighting exercise" dictated by short term
compulsions. The capacity of country to absorb foreign funding to set-up
plants with investment from foreign countries and based on imported fuel
be carefully assessed and it should be part of energy policy for channelising
decision making option for change over to indigenous fuel should be kept
in view. The energy policy must endure that it is fairly insulated from
the global fuel prices shock. The policy should be one of a mixed economy
with contribution from indigenous and foreign investment.
It is of utmost importance for sustainable
development that any technology being imported must be understood, absorbed
and used after value addition in the country.
The necessary financial resource,
in the present economic scenario have to be generated from within, by appropriate
tariff restructuring and creating a financial structure for providing long
term funding to not only utility companies, but also industries supporting
the power sector. The financial health of SEBs need to be improved by having
a hard look at the subsidies in tariff for electricity. Capacity addition
to the tune of 20,000 MWe by the year 2020, by nuclear power programme
must form an important feature on national policy for long term energy
independence and security.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN
Electricity production, is one of
the biggest polluter of environment and hence the need for green-power.
The long standing environmental impacts of electricity generation like
air and water pollution, acid deposition, waste disposal, land use and
siting impacts etc. are some of the issues which receive our sustained
attention. Many industrialised countries have already introduced emission
standards to check the emissions of SO2, Nox and particulates for their
large fossil fuel based power plants.
However, the most prominent environmental
issue in the 1990s is the threat of global climate change, caused by man-made
emissions of greenhouse gases. The atmospheric concentrations of
the green- house gases are rising rapidly. Scientifically, there is hardly
any doubt that increasing atmosphere level of such gases would cause climate
change having profound impact on the living beings. The Inter-governmental
Panel on Climatic change set-up in the year 1988 by the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
in its assessment report has indicated a rate of increase of global mean
temperature during the next century of about 9.3oC per decade. This rate
of increase is greater than that seen by the human civilisation over last
10,000 years. It could result in an increase in the global mean temperature
of about 1oC above the present level by 2025 and 3oC before the end of
the next century. This would influence our climate and would affect the
ecosystem in various ways from changes in precipitation and soil moisture
to increase in forest fires, sea-storms and surges. One of its major impact
would be in the form of global mean sea level rise of about 6cm/decade
over the next century mainly due to thermal expansion of the sea. In other
words, sea would rise by about 20 CMS by the year 2030 and 65 cms by the
end of the next century.
One of the major policy to limit
the adverse impacts of climate change is to reduce the emissions of long-lived
gases option(carbon-dioxide, nitrous oxide and CFCs) by over 60% and that
of methane by 15-20%. However, this is a difficult target to achieve because
even a 20% reduction in the emissions of these gases in the Industrialised
countries has posed problems. Moreover, most of emissions of these gases
would come from the developing countries where energy demand is rising
at a rapid rate.
OPTIONS FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION
There are technological options
available in the electricity sector which range from improvement in energy
efficiency both in conversion and end-use to fuel switching from high carbon
to low carbon(e.g. from coal to gas) or from carbon to non-carbon fuels(e.g.
from fossil fuels to nuclear).At the same time techno- economic aspects
of these options must be considered.
Besides, two important points must
be considered while evaluating technological options that can meet the
growing energy demand while limiting the emissions of green-house gases
and other environmental burdens. First, it is essential to consider full
energy chain for Co2 and equivalent emissions for the given option ranging
from mining to waste disposal. Second, a comparative assessment of the
impacts on health and environment from the full chain of the energy options
is also necessary. As per studies by IAEA the emissions during the full
energy chain for nuclear is 9 gms Co2 equivalent/Kwh electric, which is
slightly higher than hydro but is lower as compared to wind and solar power.
Nuclear power is already playing
an important role in alleviating the risks of global warming. If nuclear
power plants in operation in , the world are replaced by the fossil fuelled
plants, the Co2 emissions from the energy sector would rise by more than
8%.The cross-country data shows that many countries having large nuclear
power programme like Belgium, France and Sweden have achieved substantial
reductions in their Co2 emissions. In the United State deployment of nuclear
power between 1973 and 1994 avoided an addition of more than 1700 million
metric tons of Co2. In France, while electricity production nearly doubled
between 1982 and 1992, the emissions of Co2 and sulphur dioxide reduced
by more than a factor of three, due to large scale deployment of nuclear
power. In France, nuclear power fulfils about 76 percent of the country's
electricity needs.
In the recent Kyoto & Buenos
Aires conventions, it was recognised that nuclear power has to play large
role for limiting and rolling back the emission levels.
INDIAN ENERGY SCENE
The total energy consumed in India,
both commercial as well as non-commercial form per capita is around 380
kgOe.40% of the energy(non-commercial)is derived from bio-fuels, such as,
fuel wood, crop residue and animal waste. The demand for commercial energy
has grown at a rate of about 6% per annum during the last decade and is
expected to grow at the same rate in future also.
The total installed capacity of
around 1300 MWe in 1947 has made an impressive growth of about 86500 MWe
up to March 1998. The projected estimates anticipate capacity requirement
of about 10,000 MWe per year for next decade. The present installed capacity
comprise of three widely used resources Thermal, Hydel, Nuclear power and
wind & renewables sharing 72%,26%, 2% and1.3 respectively. The use
of renewable energy resources has also made a beginning. The maximum unit
rating of presently operating conventional thermal power stations is 500
MWe and in case of nuclear, it is 220 MWe.
India is poorly placed in terms
of world energy resources, while 16% of world population lives in India,
only 0,6% of oil and about the same portion of gas reserves exists in the
country. However, India is endowed with 6% of coal reserves of the world.
As per the present projection the proven reserves of coal are expected
to last for 100 years. The oil and gas would last for 24 and 23 years,
respectively. Moreover, oil, gas and coal also have non-energy uses. The
Hydel and coal reserves are concentrated in certain regions of the country.
India is the net importer of energy.
India has modest reserves of 70,000
Tc of Uranium and sizeable reserves of 340,000 T, of Thorium. Energy potential
of three stage programme is placed more than six times the potential of
coal reserves. Based on the Uranium resources available in the country,
it will be possible to build a maximum of above 10,000 MWe of PHWR capacity.
However, by adopting the Fast Breeder Technology(FBT), it is possible to
build a nuclear power capacity of about 300,000 MWe by using Uranium. This
involves the challenge of technology development in a frontier area which
the DAE is geared to meet.
It would also be of considerable
advantage, both commercially and strategically, if the energy production
systems are based on local fuel resources rather than the imported ones.
Any imported fuel used should be of short to medium term with options to
switch over to indigenous resources. Considering the demand for electricity
in India, in the coming years, it is imperative to utilise all possible
sources of energy. For many years to come, despite the prevailing constraints,
a large percentage of new electricity generation systems will be from coal
based plants, followed by hydro. The role of nuclear power will be at locations
away from coal mines to relive to the extent feasible transportation of
coal . In the long term it will be called upon to play a progressively
increasing role. At present among available energy technologies, apart
from coal and hydro, nuclear is the only attractive alternative which can
fill the increasing gap between demand and supply. These are of course,
other possibilities like solar, wind power, etc. However, these sources
are necessarily more diffused in their characteristics and are not likely
to be major contributors for bulk electricity generation in the foreseeable
future
Nuclear Power is safe and environmentally
benign. It has economic viability. Its unit energy cost is comparable to
that of coal- based thermal power at locations away from coal pitheads.
Its fuel has high energy density, hence transportation of fuel does not
pose any problems. Reasonable resources for nuclear power are available
in the country. Therefore this is a credible option in the long term energy
scene.
CURRENT LEVEL OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
IN INDIA
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
(PHWR) Technology
India figured on the nuclear power
map of the world in 1969 with two units of Tarapur Atomic Power Station
becoming operational. These two units have been operating and producing
cheap electricity for the past thirty years. Unit energy cost from these
Boiling Water Reactors was 5.6 paise/KWh. Subsequently India built two
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)in Rajasthan with Canadian collaboration.
These were followed up by two more units a Kalpakkam near Madras. Thus
the first stage programme progressed steadily. With the evolutionary changes
taking place in the design of nuclear power plants to meet siesmically
qualified equipment and systems coupled with new safety criteria, improved
designs were implemented at the Narora Atomic Power Plant in UP. The innovations
and improvements implemented in this nuclear power plant involved considerable
effort in research and development as well as technological improvements
in the industrial infrastructure in the country. This, India had to achieve
all by itself in view of various embargoes it faced - and still faces in
several technological matters connected with nuclear power. In most other
countries development in nuclear power sector have been achieved during
this period by international co-operation supported by funding credit.
It is because of this, that early plants took somewhat longer period of
gestation, but these constraints have also helped us to achieve remarkable
self-reliance in nuclear and related technologies. In the building of subsequent
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station in eight years, it has been demonstrated
that India has matured in this technology and is full capable of exploiting
the same. A recent study reveals that the gestation period can be further
reduced by standardising designs, achieving specified levels of design
completion prior to start of construction by adapting EPC/Large supply
cum erection packages, higher level of mechanisation. Any technology needs
time to mature. Starting from the first proto-type, as the technology matures,
industrial performance also improves resulting in cost reduction too. Nuclear
Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) currently have an installed nuclear
capacity of a little under 2000 MWe, comprising of 10 operating reactors.
Both the older and newer units have performed well attaining an average
PLF of about 75% with some of the units attaining world class performance
level. All the Nuclear Power Plants status put together have clocked 140
reactor years of operation having supplied 132 billion units of power to
the Indian grid.
500 MWe Pressurised Heavy
Water Reactor (PHWR)
With a view to augment the rate
of growth of nuclear power and also eventually realise the economy of scale,
it was necessary to design a larger PHWR system 500 MWe PHWR type was evolved
to fulfil this need. This is fully indigenous design has several advance
characteristics over and above the design of 220 MWe Units. The design
work has largely been completed and NPCIL have started construction of
two 500 MWe PHWR units at Tarapur (TAPP-3&4).
Plutonium Utilisation (Fast
Breeder Reactor Programme)
The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR) established at Kalpakkam is dedicated to development of
fast reactor technology and its associated fuel cycle. A Fast Breeder Test
Reactor (FBTR) is operational in IGCAR along with the related advanced
laboratories devoted to R&D in FBR fuel cycle and related areas in
safety, materials and instrumentation. The reactor has registered steady
operation and the unit was synchronised to grid. An advanced fuel of mixed
carbide of Uranium and Plutonium, used for the first time for full core
of the reactor, is performing well. Experience has been gained in areas
of reactor physics, fuel design and sodium coolant technology. As a logical
next step, the design of a 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
has been taken up and the same is progressing well. A technology development
programme is in progress with participation of Indian industries for fabrication
of large-sized critical components. Start of Construction of the first
PFBR is planned towards the end of Ninth Plan. Many more 500 MWe PFBRs
are envisaged for addition by 2020
Thorium Utilisation
Generation of power using the vast
indigenous resources of thorium in an appropriate reactor system forms
the third stage of the long term Indian Nuclear Power Programme. Since
thorium utilisation is not of immediate interest to other countries, India
have to take the lead in this technology. Process for separation of U-
233 from irradiated thorium has been demonstrated in pilot scale plants
in Trombay and Kalpakkam. U-233 bearing fuel has been fabricated and tested
in small reactor systems, such as Purnima- 3."KAMINI" the only operating
reactor in the world using U-233 as fuel is functional at IGCAR. Thorium
fuel bundles have been introduced in Kakrapar Atomic Power Station for
flux flattening. An advanced heavy water reactor system that can make use
of appropriate thorium fuel reprocessing Uranium-233 fuel cycle is also
being developed.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle and related
areas
India has developed its own technologies
in the entire nuclear fuel cycle and related areas, and has acquired capabilities
in design, construction and operation of fuel cycle plants including fuel
fabrication, heavy water plants. The importance of these plants needs no
emphasis having regard to our long term objective of utilizing thorium.
FUTURE PLANS
Currently, two 220 MWe PHWR units,
each are being set up at Kaiga in Karnataka and at Rawatbhata in Rajasthan.
These are in advanced stage for completion in 1999/2000. The construction
of two units of 500 MWe PHWR has started at Tarapur. Start up of construction
of two more units, Kaiga-3 & 4 at Kaiga is planned towards the end
of Ninth Five Year Plan. Four units of 500 MWe and two units of 220 MWe
on which advance actions have been taken are awaiting sanction. These need
to be pursued. In additional six 500 MWe PHWRs are envisaged for addition
as part of first stage programme. Efforts in launching the PFBR needs to
be stepped up vigorously as this is a window to our long term programme.
In parallel thorium based system need to be developed.
Notwithstanding the indigenous developments,
the light water reactors have been the mainstay of nuclear power programmes
in most countries in world. These were offered as possible international
projects in the past. Presently, India entered into an agreement with the
Government of the Russian Federation for setting up two 1000 MWe VVERs
(PWR) Plants at Kudankulam. Similar additions to our nuclear power programme
in terms of additional LWRs of advanced designs from international projects
can be considered to augment nuclear power programme in the coming decades.
This is, of course, assuming that the terms of offer are appropriate to
the Indian context. Thus one can expect that we may be having about 10%
nuclear in the total power generation capacity by 2020.
CONCLUSION
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It is essential to have plans to achieve
self-sufficiency in “Energy" for achieving "energy security".
-
Foreign funding can only partially meet
the demand, bulk of it has to come through indigenous resources.
-
A long term "National Plan" be made
and all the industries in energy/power sector be geared up for meeting
above objective.
-
Power sector being of the nature of
long gestation period infrastructure, an appropriate financing structure
has to be created for providing long term debt financing to both, power
utility companies and the industries in power /energy sector.
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Nuclear power has established to be
safe, reliable and economic option for meeting our energy demands. Total
indigenous capabilities have been developed in our nuclear power programme
The nuclear power is at a stage to play an increasing role in moving towards
the long term objective of energy security.
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